GOOGLE:
Towards a Semantic, Multimodal, AI-powered Search Engine

In September 2012, Amit Singhal, then SVP of the company, signed a seminal article, a true watershed published on the official Google Blog and titled “Introducing the Knowledge Graph: things, not strings.”

The second part of the title has a meaning as evocative as not immediately transparent.

The strings to which it refers are the old keywords, cross and delight of every SEO, and the things are nothing but the entities increasingly talked about in the SEO community. It must be said that Google uses the term “topic” more often, both in public communications and in its patents.

The KG represents how Google understands and stores all its factual information about the world and connects with content across the Internet. The goal of the KG is to transition Google “from being an information engine [to] a knowledge engine” (as stated in the official presentation video included in this infographic).

The technologies at the core of KG are certainly not a novelty introduced by Google and are. These technologies are the most widespread implementation of the vision and tech stack of the semantic web. They are also rooted in a concept dating back decades: the knowledge base.

Although used for the first time in the Netherlands in an academic context, the term knowledge graph was imposed to the general public and even to the academy itself, thanks to Google’s marketing.

Knowledge Base

A knowledge base is a type of graph database where nodes represent real-world objects such as people, places, things, events, organizations, and concepts, and edges represent relations between them.

A KG is a directed graph whose vertices are represented by RDF triples.

Each triple consists of three parts:

subject-predicate-object,

seen in another way:

entity-attribute-value, or entity-relationship-entity.

This last formulation emphasizes the interconnection between entities and how each of them can be part of the description (an attribute) of other entities, thus forming a dense network.

What differentiates a KG from a knowledge base is the presence of a “reasoning engine” capable of generating new knowledge. 

What’s in Google Knowledge Graph?

In 2010 Google acquired Metaweb, the company that created Freebase, the first brick of the knowledge graph. According to each topic/entity category, other fundamental sources of information are Wikipedia, wikidata, the CIA World fact, Linkedin, and much other public or licensed databases (even not present on the Internet), including dynamic information updated in real-time from news sources. 

In an official article from May 2020, Google states that its KG then contained over 500 billion facts about five billion entities.

Knowledge Graphs and SERPs: the Knowledge Panels

The information contained in the knowledge graph is presented in SERPs in cards, the so-called Knowledge Panels triggered by specific queries (want more? Read How is a Knowledge Panel for an entity triggered? by Bill Slawsky).

The usefulness of Knowledge Panels is, in Singhal’s words, to allow users to find the right thing (in case of ambiguous queries); get the best summary (about a topic/entity); go deeper and broader (through the suggestion of related topics).

Over the years, Knowledge Panels have been populated with dynamic information, such as the results of a sporting event. In some cases, they have become interactive too.

KPs share some discrete units of content, such as the name of the entity, its description (usually from Wikipedia or other authoritative human-curated sources), a set of attributes, and other multimedia content units (photos, videos, music) that change based on the category to which the entity belongs. There are several templates for presenting information related to the topic’s category. These templates consist of different content types and placeholders that define the position of the content items belonging to these types.

The importance of the Knowledge Graph

Beyond the information that returns to users, the KG also plays a decisive “backend” job, so to speak, related to its capacity of “inferential reasoning.”

One crucial function is to disambiguate queries; that’s where the Knowledge Graph comes in. It allows Google to go beyond keyword matching and return more relevant results by extracting entities to understand the search context. 

Query extraction is done by reading the on-page semantic metadata (the schema markup) and through Google’s Natural Language Processing (NLP) algorithms.

Google uses the extracted knowledge to train machine learning algorithms to predict missing relationships between entities. A confidence score is assigned to the various alternatives and is then used to answer natural language queries (e.g., posed to the Voice Assistant) using information present in the KG.

The entities extracted from the queries allow google to form “Augmented queries” and to present in SERP a set of results related to them.

The KG update is partly an automatic process. While crawling the Internet and indexing documents, Google extracts facts about the entities it finds in these documents. Facts correspond to predicate-object pairs (or attribute-value or relation-entity depending on the angle from which we look).

According to the many patents analyzed by the indefatigable Bill Slawsky, the KG would be able to self-update by answering self-generated queries starting from the missing information in a data set. 

Knowledge Graphs and SEO

As explicitly stated in the title of Singhal’s article, SEOs should no longer be focused on keywords and their correlates present in various elements of a page. Still, instead, Google goes on the hunt for facts about entities. Therefore, adding topic analysis at the core of the daily SEO job becomes indispensable. This analysis output is a topical map to be covered exhaustively at a single page or content-cluster level.

We could say that keyword research is to SEO as topic modeling is to Semantic SEO.

This doesn’t mean that keywords will disappear as they remain how topics are expressed.

Being present within the Knowledge Graph and having your own KP in the brand SERP gives you enormous visibility, both from desktop and mobile.

If you have a KP, it’s important to claim ownership of it to have more control (through feedback) in case of incorrect information.

User-specific Knowledge Graphs

A series of exciting patents highlights how Google could generate a series of mini KGs linked to each specific user. “This reminds me of personalized search but tells us that it is looking at more than just our search history – It includes data from sources such as emails that we might send or receive or posts that we might make to social networks. This knowledge graph may contain information about the social connections we have, but it also contains knowledge information about those connections. The patent tells us that personally identifiable information (including location information) will be protected, as well.” Bill Slawsky

Google Knowledge Graph volatility

SEOs associate the concept of “volatility” with SERPs (SERP volatility) and core updates, and you hardly ever hear about Knowledge Graph volatility. Kalicube Pro is the only SaaS platform to provide a sensor for tracking KG updates. Here’s what Jason Barnard, “The Brand SERP Guy,” shared with us on this topic:

“The Knowledge Graph is Google’s understanding of the world. As it moves “from strings to things,” the Knowledge Graph is the “things” Google is talking about. Just like the “traditional” core search algorithms, Google’s understanding of things is driven by algorithms and data, which are both regularly updated. Tracking those updates will become as important as tracking core algorithm updates. In a world where Google has truly moved from strings to things, these Knowledge Graph updates may prove to be even more significant.

Kalicube has been tracking Knowledge Graph volatility and updates since 2015. Up until late-2021, those updates were generally between 2 weeks and 2 months apart and never coincided with core algorithm updates or high SERP volatility (as measured by tools such as SEMrush and Rank Ranger). However, end-of-year 2021 saw a significant increase in Knowledge Graph update frequency (8 updates in a 6 week period) coupled with multiple Google core algorithm updates and massive SERP volatility. I believe that 17th November 2021 will prove to be a key date that we will come to see as massively significant in semantic SEO. That is the first time an announced core algorithm update coincided with a Knowledge Graph update in this way. Moving into 2022 and beyond, I am sure it will not be the last.”

In September 2013, Google introduced its new search algorithm, the Humming Bird. At their 15th anniversary special event, Google announced that this new algorithm was specially designed to handle complex queries and would allow search engines to interpret queries much like a human in a more nuanced manner. This marks the beginning of Google’s attempt to give more emphasis to natural language queries, considering the context than the individual words.   

The Hummingbird – A User-focused Algorithm 

Unlike the earlier algorithm updates that focused on making Google better at retrieving information, Hummingbird focuses on the user. The prime focus of this algorithm is to make Google understand the intent behind the user’s query and help them find the most relevant answers to their queries. 

An interesting tidbit – this update was named the Hummingbird update because, well, it is believed it made Google’s core algorithm more accurate and quick.

With this update, Google claimed it could better judge the search context and thus be able to ascertain accurately what the user really wanted to find out. The idea was to give results based more on the meaning of the whole query (semantic understanding) than the exact keyword match. 

So, let us assume you searched for “Which place can I buy iPhone 5s cheapest near me?”. Earlier search engines would try to return exact matches for the words, say “buy”, “iPhone 5s”, and so on. Thus, any webpage that had these words might appear in the results.

Hummingbird, on the other hand, works on the meaning of the query, the semantics. It understands place as a physical location and the iPhone 5s as a device. The knowledge of these semantics helps the search engine understand the intent of the query better, and thus the probability of more relevant results is higher.

How Does the Humming Bird Work?

When queried about the Hummingbird algorithm, Matt Cutts, an ex-software engineer at Google, described the update as a “complete re-write of the core algorithm”. 

This may sound phenomenal, and Hummingbird may seem like a brand-new algorithm. However, it’s not. By re-write, Cutts meant that, with Hummingbird, the core algorithm has been reviewed and rewritten to make it more effective and efficient in its job. 

_________________________________________________________

“Hummingbird is a rewrite of the core search algorithm.

Just to do a better job of matching the users queries with documents, especially for natural language queries, you know the queries get longer, they have more words in them and sometimes those words matter and sometimes they don’t.”

• Matt Cutts, 

Former Software Engineer, Google

____________________________________________________________

Thus, Hummingbird was a paradigm shift in how search engines deciphered and understood long, conversational, natural language queries. To do this, the Hummingbird relies on a query expansion strategy that comprehends lengthy natural language queries similar to how people speak. From searching word-by-word and matching a webpage that has all the words in a search query, Hummingbird empowered search engines to ignore some words and understand the context and intent instead. 

But how exactly does Hummingbird achieve this? Let us explore!

The Google Patent on Query Revision

Google uses different signals to understand what exactly the user wants to know from their search query. The most significant among these is a history or pattern of what the earlier searchers had wanted.

Google’s patent on query revision techniques using highly-ranked queries seems to hold the key to how this is done. The patent explains how search engines use “a system and a method that uses session-based user data to more correctly capture a user’s potential information need based on analysis of strings of queries other users have formed in the past”. 

In simple terms, Google uses information on what previous searchers have searched, the results they clicked or hovered over, and other such information to determine what the current user really wanted to know and include those signals to identify pages that ranked for the query. 

Bill Slawski, Author of the “SEO by the Sea” blog, explained this Google patent in his blog. He decoded that the patent shows how a co-occurrence measure is used to determine search term-synonym pairs, depending on the frequency in which those terms appear together or tend to occur together in other related searches. Bill believed that while evaluating the searcher’s intent, Google could consider several synonyms from its synonym database that could match the query’s context. This database could also include other measures like the confidence level for a term to represent a synonym or substitute.

For eg: for a query like “what’s the best place to eat Chicago-style pizza?” the following image may describe how the query is evaluated. 

 Image source – https://www.seobythesea.com/2013/09/google-hummingbird-patent/

What’s the Impact of the Hummingbird Update?

In his interview, Matt Cuts from Google claimed that the Hummingbird update impacted close to 90% of the search queries (at 1:20:16), but not many SEOs could notice any change. 

This is because, according to Google, there is nothing special or new that SEOs need to focus on. Google’s guidance on creating original, high-quality, relevant and useful content remains unaltered. To reiterate, the Hummingbird merely enables Google to understand the searcher’s intent and search context to show more relevant and useful results. 

But the following might be a few areas to focus on:

1. Use keyword research not to identify the keywords to load content with but to understand the search intent – what exactly the audience wants.
2. Avoid traditional SEO writing, where you write a specified combination of words in a specific number of occurrences. Focus instead on adding more value to the content with related topics.
3. Avoid keyword stuffing. Hummingbird update was focused on understanding what the user’s search intent was. This means web content should be optimized with the goal of enabling Google to understand what your site is all about. Use synonyms and related terms to increase the co-occurrence measure. 
4. Create high-quality, useful content. It should be noted that the Hummingbird update was also Google’s means of sifting through unwanted content and discovering useful, relevant content. 

Final Thoughts

The Hummingbird update is considered a real breakthrough in Google’s attempts to better understand search queries. It is also a step in the right direction regarding how modern searches are made – more commonly known as conversational searches. Although the initial effect of the Hummingbird update was more subtle, this is bound to lead to a robust search experience – one where the user can query in their spoken language and yet find the most suitable results. 

Introduced in October 2015, Google RankBrain is now the third-most significant ranking factor among Google Algorithms, as confirmed by Andrew Lippattsev, a senior search strategist at Google. 

What is RankBrain? 

In simple terms, RankBrain is essentially a component of Google’s core algorithm. 

According to Google, RankBrain helps the search engine “understand how words are related to concepts. It means we can better return relevant content even if it doesn’t contain all the exact words used in a search, by understanding the content is related to other words and concepts.”

It uses machine-learning technology to help Google deliver more accurate results for any given search. It does this by allowing Google:

• To better interpret the searcher’s intent behind a search term.
• To understand how words can be related to concepts. 
• To return relevant content even if they don’t contain all of the words given in the search query. 

Thus, Google RankBrain empowers the search engine to move beyond just “strings” and focus on “things.”

Why did Google Introduce RankBrain?

Until RankBrain happened, much of Google’s algorithm was hand-coded. Google engineers would constantly be involved in testing an update and implementing the same if it worked. 

In fact, it is no exaggeration to claim that RankBrain revolutionized how search results were determined. As a machine learning system, RankBrain can now adjust its algorithm based on how satisfied users are with the search results it delivers.

How Does the RankBrain Work?

Before RankBrain, Google would interpret each of the words in the string and bring back “matching” content. Today, Google seems to understand what you are asking. Rather, RankBrain makes it easy for Google to try and actually figure out what the user wants to know. How? By helping Google match the given search term with terms, Google is already familiar with. 

Before we elaborate on how RankBrain does this magic, let us understand some associated terms.

Entities

As defined by Google, entities represent “A thing or concept that is singular, unique, well-defined, and distinguishable.”  Entities can be made of just single words or phrases. 

Dwell Time

It denotes the duration of time that a user spends on any webpage after clicking on its link from the search results and before returning to the SERP.

Using entity references in unstructured data

In a patent from 2013 titled “Question answering using entity references in unstructured data,” Google elaborated a method that it used to answer queries. For any given query:

• Google submitted the entities for index
• It then reviews these entities with their top 10 search queries
• Then, it extrapolates the various entities that are expected to be related to each other or to the top results of the queries.

Monitoring

RankBrain is a machine learning system. This means it has the inherent ability to evaluate, track and adjust the algorithm on the basis of search success metrics it gleans. The algorithm determines how it weighs different signals, looks for specific patterns, and then develops rule blocks to manage any such query. 

Click-through Rate (CTR)

This denotes the percentage of users who click on a link in search results and immediately return to the SERP.

Bounce Rate

Bounce rate is the percentage of users who leave a website after checking a single page. 

Pogo Sticking

This is a search behavior where a user clicks on one result from the SERP and then immediately returns to click on a different result.

Now, let us return to how RankBrain uses these concepts to evaluate search queries.

There are three parts to how RankBrain functions:

• Understanding and interpreting search terms (keywords).
• Measuring searchers’ interaction with search results.
• Tweaking and fine-tuning its algorithm for future searches

Understanding Queries

One of the primary techniques that RankBrain employs to understand queries is Entity Recognition. 

When RankBrain sees a query, it checks if it has the same entities they have seen before. There could be little variations in terms of other qualifiers or stop words, but RankBrain interprets these as identical entities. Now, this assessment gives the algorithm an indication that the results may also be identical, similar, or arrived from the same set of shortlisted URLs. 

Measuring User Interaction

Next to understand the user’s intent, RankBrain evaluates signals like click-through rates, dwell time, bounce rates, etc. 

Among the search results, if a website has a higher click-through rate, the algorithm understands that the site has relevant information for the search query entered. Similarly, if the dwell time is low or if the bounce rate is high, it signals to the algorithm that the user did not find helpful information on the site. Thus, the site will be excluded from future search results for the search query. 

Adjusting the Algorithm

RankBrain is a system that is consistently learning. Therefore, it uses the insights derived from the above metrics and refines its algorithm to reflect the learning. It identifies patterns in user behavior concerning search results and enables new rules to manage future queries of similar intent. 

In short, RankBrain can be perceived more as a pre-screening system for search queries. 

What Queries are Impacted by RankBrain

Originally, when RankBrain was introduced, it was meant to affect only 15% of all Google searches. Subsequently, when RankBrain started performing exceptionally well in delivering valuable results, Google’s confidence in this machine-learning system grew. Yet, RankBrain was not processing all search queries. It processed only those queries that Google had no clue about earlier. 

But in 2016, an article in WIRED claimed that “RankBrain does involve every query”.

Let’s recap a bit on what we know about RankBrain

• RankBrain is a technology that impacts the ways Google returns results for a search query.
• RankBrain enables accurate search results by understanding the search query as a whole, and the intent behind the search
• RankBrain measures users’ interactions with the search results and uses these metrics to fine-tune its algorithm, thereby, its results. 

RankBrain does play an important role in search results. Experts suggest that it might actually impact the search rankings. The same article in WIRED also goes on to claim that RankBrain affects rankings “probably not in every query but in a lot of queries.”

Also, Google’s Gary Ilyes has this to say about RankBrain:

“RankBrain is a PR-sexy machine learning ranking component that uses historical search data to predict what would a user most likely click on for a previously unseen query.”

Final Thoughts

Google continues to optimize and fine-tune its algorithms to create a super-efficient search experience, and RankBrain is no different. But it does well for everyone to understand that RankBrain is all about comprehending the user’s search intent and creating relevant and useful content for them. 

Thus, as Gary Ilyes points out:

you optimize your content for users and thus for rankbrain. that hasn't changed

— Gary 鯨理／경리 Illyes (so official, trust me) (@methode) September 26, 2019

TensorFlow: the free open-source library for machine learning and AI

TensorFlow is a versatile open-source software library for numerical computation using data flow graphs. It facilitates the construction of computational graphs, where nodes represent mathematical operations, and edges connect the nodes, enabling data to flow from one node to another. A typical TensorFlow program consists of two main components: one defining the computational graph with nodes signifying mathematical operations, and the other providing input data and computing outputs based on the specified graph. Nodes in a TensorFlow graph can embody various mathematical operations, such as matrix multiplication, linear regression, or convolution. The nodes are interconnected by “pipelines” that transmit data, while the graph edges denote the multidimensional data arrays (tensors) communicated between them.

The core concept behind TensorFlow is to allow structured execution of different operations (referred to as ops) on data, rather than relying on ad hoc code. A “graph” visually represents these operations and is implemented as a directed acyclic graph (DAG). This structure simplifies the reuse of existing ops and their combination into more intricate ones while enabling parallelism—an essential feature for ongoing artificial intelligence research, including machine learning. The flexible architecture permits the deployment of computation on one or more CPUs or GPUs across desktops, servers, or mobile devices through a single API.

Originally developed by Google engineers Fernando Pereira, Vincent Vanhoucke, Ian Goodfellow, and others at the Google Brain Team within Google’s Machine Intelligence research organization, TensorFlow was initially intended for internal use before its public release in November 2015. In 2017, it became an Apache open-source project. The developers later discovered that the system was versatile enough to be applicable across various other domains, including computer graphics, machine learning, and bioinformatics. TensorFlow can be utilized for automatic feature extraction and serves as a high-level tool for constructing scalable architectural models for machine learning applications.

The Google engine processes natural language explicitly, enabling easy interpretation and analysis. This can be achieved by providing appropriate tools and pre-processing data using NLP techniques, resulting in more accurate representations from words to vectors/features. Consequently, the combination of TensorFlow and the Google engine can be employed to develop a semantic search engine with multimodal input capabilities, encompassing Natural Language Processing and speech recognition.

“Transformers were introduced in 2017 by a team at Google Brain and are increasingly the model of choice for NLP problems, replacing RNN (Recurrent Neural Networks) models such as long short-term memory (LSTM). […] This led to the development of pre-trained systems such as BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers) and GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer), which were trained with large language datasets, such as the Wikipedia Corpus and Common Crawl, and can be fine-tuned for specific tasks.” (Wikipedia).

In 2017, Google published a paper titled “Attention is All You Need.” This paper introduced a new neural network architecture called Transformer, and the context is that of machine translation of the text. As explained in the title, at the heart of this new architecture is the so-called Attention Mechanism and the new concept called multi-headed Attention.

“We propose a new simple network architecture, the Transformer, based solely on attention mechanisms, dispensing with recurrence and convolutions entirely. Experiments on two machine translation tasks show these models to be superior in quality while being more parallelizable and requiring significantly less time to train” Ashish Vaswani, Noam Shazeer, Niki Parmar and the other authors write in the paper abstract.

This revolutionary milestone is disclosed through the Google official AI blog in an article entitled “Transformer: A Novel Neural Network Architecture for Language Understanding.” but let’s take a step back.

The first appearance of the Attention Mechanism

Dzmitry Bahdanau and colleagues first introduced the Attention Mechanism about neural networks for automatic text translation.

Before that, machine translation relied on RNNs/LSTMs (Recurrent Neural Networks/Long Short Term Memory) encoder-decoders.

Said simply, there are two recurrent neural networks. One is called the encoder, which reads the input sentence and attempts to summarize it. Then the decoder takes this summary as an input and outputs the translated version of the original sentence.

The main drawback of this method is that if the encoder makes a poor summary, the output will also be poor. The longer the sentence, the higher the probability of having a bad translation.

In that Bahdanau’s paper, the authors proposed “a model to automatically (soft-)search for parts of a source sentence that are relevant to predicting a target word, without having to form these parts as a hard segment explicitly.”

The problem Bahdanau and colleagues were trying to solve is that, in previous years, words were represented as fixed-length vectors considering it a bottleneck in improving the performance of this basic encoder-decoder architecture,

Now, word embeddings allow us to represent words as continuous numbers, and these numbers give us new ways to understand how words relate to each other.

Words are not discrete but strongly related to each other. We can find correlations among them, and projecting words into a continuous Euclidian space allows us to find relationships between them.

In the paper published in 2017, Google researchers demonstrate that recurrent data processing is not necessary to achieve the benefits of RNNs with Attention. Transformer architectures do not require an RNN but instead process all tokens simultaneously and calculate attention weights between them in each layer. Tokens are used to break up words or sentences into smaller pieces, and these pieces are then fed as individual inputs into the network.

In recurrent networks, the network learns information about the past and the future. However, the Transformer Network uses self-attention mechanisms to focus on different parts of the input sequence.

The encoder maps the input sequence onto an n-dimensional vector.

The decoder then uses this vector as input to produce the output sequence.

Transformer looks at all the elements simultaneously but pays more Attention to the most crucial element in the sentence.

Transformers learn by example, and they tend to remember what they’ve seen before. This means that they can process sequences much faster than other methods. In addition, they’re better at understanding relationships between elements that are far away from each other.

Multi-headed Attention

A multi-head attention mechanism allows the model to focus on different parts of the input sentence at once. There are three reasons for doing this. First, if we were using a single head, we could not get any information about what was said before or after the current sentence. Second, because we want to use both the encoder and decoders’ outputs as input to the next layer, we need to know how much each of them contributed to the final output. Third, we need to ensure that the attention mechanism does not forget anything. We accomplish this by having multiple heads.

While predicting each word individually, we need to consider the previous words as well. So, instead of using attention mechanism on every single word independently, we use attention mechanism on the entire sequence of previously predicted tokens.

What Transformer models can do

The idea behind the Transformer is to create a model that can be trained using data and then used as a kind of ‘generator’ to generate new information.

Transformer models are designed to take any kind of sequential data and turn them into something else. For example, you could use a transformer model to analyze your Twitter feed and see if there were any patterns in how often you tweet about specific topics. You could also use a transformer model to create new content by analyzing your tweets. Or you might want to train a machine-learning algorithm to read DNA and then write computer programs using the information encoded in our genetic material.

Anomaly detection is often applied to security systems, but it could also monitor factory processes or other business activities. Transformer technology makes it easy to distinguish anomalies from normal behavior.

In order to better understand user queries, Google needs to understand the search intent of a query very thoroughly. This is achieved by establishing the contextual meaning of the words in the query. For this reason, the search engine must necessarily study the set of existing relationships between events, people, topics, and places through its own Knowledge Graph. The system then identifies an entire set of different subtopics related to the main query and displays them among the search results.

This is exactly how Topic Layer, introduced in 2018, works.

Nick Fox, Vice President of Product & Design, has described it on Google’s own blog as “built by analyzing all the content that exists on the web for a given topic” and has added that it “develops hundreds and thousands of subtopics.”

Danny Sullivan, public liaison of Google Search, called it “a way of leveraging how the Knowledge Graph knows about people, places and things into topics.”

Since the search is no longer related only to the main keyword, but to the whole topic of the query, it was necessary to expand the semantic scope and develop an algorithm, such as Topic Layer. This technology is built around the analysis of contents associated with a given topic and the simultaneous development of hundreds and thousands of subtopics.

In other words, a set of semantically related concepts is produced in order to provide the user with the opportunity to move on to the next step and refine or expand their search.

As he introduced Topic Layer, Nick Fox brought special attention to this concept, stating that it is “engineered to deeply understand a topic space and how interests can develop over time as familiarity and expertise grow.”

Google has set aside the single phoneme search mode for quite some time now and it has evolved into a full-fledged semantic search engine. The use of Topic Layer is one extra step toward this direction. The algorithm aims at understanding how different secondary topics, pertinent to the main topic of the query, relate to each other. That is to say, its goal is to bring forth and highlight the content that the user wishes to explore next.

Barry Schwartz said on Twitter that Topic Layer “enables dynamic categorization of search results.” Dynamic organization means that the search results are not showed within predefined categories. On the contrary, the search engine shows them while highlighting the most relevant subtopics. Google adjusts the results by emphasizing mainly articles, images and videos that show greater relevance to the user’s query.

However, the last statement by Nick Fox is perhaps the most innovative and it paves the way for a brand new concept of web search and search results.

At the end of his own presentation, he says, “All of this enables experiences that make it easier than ever to explore your interests” and concludes, “even if you don’t have your next search in mind.” Therefore, it is no longer just a matter of being able to answer to the current user’s query as efficiently as possible, but to foresee their next, semantically related queries.

A new dynamic way to quickly change results is coming, such as how you can toggle to quickly change about a dog breeds. This is powered by the Topic Layer, a way of leveraging how the Knowledge Graph knows about people, places and things into topics. pic.twitter.com/EgtvKhKS88

— Danny Sullivan (@dannysullivan) September 24, 2018

The Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) language model is an open-source tool introduced in a paper published by Google researchers in June 2018 for natural language processing (NLP) tasks. It is designed to help computers understand the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences by taking a larger context into account. It has been adopted as the standard model for many Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks such as question answering, semantic parsing, machine translation, and language modeling. In one year after BERT language model was published, it was implemented in the Google search engine.

The idea behind the model is that when computers read text, they should be able to understand the context of the sentences they are reading — not just the sequence of words but also their meaning and the relationships between them. This concept is referred to as semantic understanding. The introduction of bidirectionality into previous language models, which only read text in one direction, allowed them to understand the context of sentences better and handle multi-step tasks.

BERT was created to improve upon previously existing models. Its design is based on Transformers, a deep learning model in which every output element is connected to every input element, and the weightings between them are dynamically calculated based on their connection. In NLP, this process is called Attention.

These types of transformers use attention to adjust the weightings between the input and output elements dynamically, as opposed to most other NLP models, which use a static configuration of connections between layers.

The architecture was designed to overcome a limitation of language models: most of them can only process forward-facing or backward-facing text asynchronously. BERT’s bidirectionality is enabled by introducing Transformers, which are neural modules that can transform inputs from one representation to another. In this way, Transformers enable BERT to read in both directions simultaneously, overcoming the limitation of forward-only language models and making them more robust and accurate than ever before. As a result, a language model can read in both directions at once for the first time, creating a more accurate result.

BERT was trained on two related but distinct NLP tasks. The first is known as Masked Language Modeling (MLM). In MLM training, a word in a sentence is hidden, and the program has to predict what word has been masked based on the context of the masked word. The second task BERT has been trained on is Next Sentence Prediction (NSP). In NSP training, two sentences are given. Then, the program predicts whether they have a logical, sequential connection or whether their relationship is simply random.

BERT expands to Bi-directional Encoder Representations from Transformers. It is a technique based on Transformer neural networks architecture that is used to pre-train natural language processing models. 

__________________________________________________________

“BERT is a natural language processing pre-training approach that can be used on a large body of text. It handles tasks such as entity recognition, part of speech tagging, and question-answering, among other natural language processes. BERT helps Google understand natural language text from the WEB.”

• Bill Slawski – Search algorithm patent specialist. 

___________________________________________________________

It is important to note that BERT is just an algorithm – a method or approach that can be used in any natural language processing application. With Google, BERT helps the search engine better understand the user’s intent when they search for specific information. 

Dissecting the BERT

The BERT algorithm is based on a machine learning framework built by Google in 2018.  The goal was to enable computer systems to decipher the meaning of any ambiguous text using the context surrounding it. Essentially, BERT improves natural language understanding by allowing systems to predict text that may appear before or after other text. BERT was pre-trained using a large plain text corpus. 

To better understand how the algorithm works, let us try and decode what the word BERT means:

B – Bi-directional

Conventionally, most language models were trained to read input text only sequentially – left to right or right to left. They weren’t equipped to read text both ways at the same time. Thus, they were uni-directional. BERT, however, is different. It’s the FIRST language modeling approach that’s deeply bi-directional and unsupervised. This means it can read the text in either direction. BERT can process the whole text on either side of the word, as well as contextually understand the sentence as a whole at once. 

E – Encoder

The encoder encodes the input text in a format the language model can understand. During the encoding process, every symbol representation of the input sequence is mapped to a sequence of continuous representation. The encoder is a stack of six identical layers. Each layer is composed of two sub-layers – a self-attention mechanism and a feed-forward network. The model then employs a residual connection around these sublayers to concatenate the results, which are further improved by applying layer normalization. The normalized results are then passed on to the next layer. 

Before we move on, let us first understand what the attention mechanism is all about.

Attention Mechanisms 

 Earlier NLPs used Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs), where data is fed in a recurrent manner in the neural network. However, this caused the algorithm to slow down. Further, RNNs did not help when processing longer sentences. 

This issue was solved thanks to the paper, “Attention is all you need.” The paper recommended replacing RNNs with what was called the attention mechanism – an architecture that was able to process a sentence word by word and as a sentence as a whole in parallel. Here, each word in the input text is given as input to 2 different neural networks. The first network deciphers the meaning of the word, while the second network identifies the type of words the initial word can be related to. Thus, a correlation is created between a word, and the rest of the phrase in the sentence, thereby improving the contextual understanding. 

R – Representation

With BERT, natural language processing applications get the ability to handle a variety of downstream tasks. Application using BERT gets the flexibility of being able to represent input as either a single sentence or a pair of sentences unambiguously – for instance: Question & Answer pairs.

T – Transformer

BERT derives its architecture from the Transformer model. The original transformer model uses an encoder-decoder mechanism. But BERT essentially is just the encoder of the transformer. 

Pre-training BERT

While training any language model, a common challenge is to define how much to predict. Most models predict the next word in a sequence of words. However, this might be a uni-directional approach and limits contextual learning and understanding. To overcome this challenge, BERT was trained using two strategies – Masked Language Modeling (MLM) and Next Sentence Prediction (NSP). 

Masked Language Modeling is used for bi-directionality. In every sentence, some of the words are masked. The model is trained to predict the masked words using the context provided by the unmasked words. This improves the contextual learning capabilities of the model.  

The Next Sentence Prediction task is used to understand the relationships between a pair of sentences. Assuming two different sentences X and Y, when the model encounters sentence X, it will have to predict if sentence Y naturally follows X. 

While MLM trains BERT to decipher the connections between words, NSP enables BERT to comprehend the dependencies between pairs of sentences. 

How Does BERT Help Search Queries

While announcing the BERT model, Google claimed that BERT would help the search engines understand at least 1 in 10 search queries. 

Meet BERT, a new way for Google Search to better understand language and improve our search results. It's now being used in the US in English, helping with one out of every 10 searches. It will come to more counties and languages in the future. pic.twitter.com/RJ4PtC16zj

— Google SearchLiaison (@searchliaison) October 25, 2019

The model becomes particularly useful for queries that are more conversational and includes prepositions like “to” or “for,” which may carry a lot of contextual meaning to the query. This way, BERT allows users to search in a way that’s natural to them. 

Assume that the search query was “2019 brazil traveler to usa need visa”. In this particular query, the word “to” carries a specific meaning when understood in relation to the words surrounding it. Earlier, the search engine could not understand this relation and would throw results about US folks traveling to Brazil, while the requirement is the other way round. 

With BERT, Google understands the nuances of the query much better and deciphers that, though common, the word “to” carries additional weight here. Thus the results mostly match the search requirement.  

Google had cited other such examples in their rollout announcement. These demonstrate how the advancements in language processing enable Google to understand the user’s intent better when they enter some text query or give voice commands to their digital assistants. 

But, does Google need BERT to make sense of every type of search it encounters? No. It may not. Understandably, not all queries are conversational in nature. If there is a branded search or if the query uses much shorter phrases, BERT may not apply. 

What Else Does BERT Impact?

BERT also impacts featured snippets. This is Google’s attempt to improve searches and search results for people worldwide. A unique and powerful characteristic of BERT is that it can apply learnings it derived from one language to any other language seamlessly. Thus BERT is being used to improve featured snippets in at least 25 languages for which Google already lists them.

While BERT pertains only to Search, Google predicts that there may be some impact on queries searched through Google Assistants, especially when these queries trigger featured snippets as a result.

Why is the BERT Important for Google?

The length of the queries has increased over time. Rather than broken short phrases, long-tail searches have become commonplace. People post fully articulated sentences as queries and expect Google to understand their requirements. This is now possible, thanks to significant contributions from BERT. 

Back in January 2021, Barry Schwartz, officially announcing the launch of Subtopic Ranking by Google, described it as “Neural nets to understand subtopics around an interest, which helps deliver a greater diversity of content when you search for something broad.”

Schwartz also showed how this algorithm — actually launched in mid-November 2020 — works through an example: the results of the search for “home exercise equipment.” In this case, as the renowned search engine technologist says, we receive a great number of relevant subtopics, such as the cheapest equipment available or ideas for furnishing small spaces dedicated to fitness training. Subtopic Ranking, then, can show us a much wider range of research-related contents.

The thing that actually worried users was whether all this could also eventually lead to a change to the visual appearance of the search results in the SERP, with all its likely consequences. Danny Sullivan has provided the answer to this worrisome question through one of his tweets: “subtopics don’t change the look of search results, only broaden the diversity of content, when useful”.

Therefore, from a purely operational point of view, there has been no change, but the idea of Subtopics is definitely a game-changer. In addition to the contents closely related to the original query, the search results also show other contents, called secondary. Those secondary contents are the product of the neural network’s implementation: starting from the original query, the network has figured out the user’s current, and future, objective and showed relevant results. A chief role in this process is obviously played by artificial intelligence. The latter also uses semantic search to broaden the set of results.

The introduction of Subtopic Ranking is closely linked to Google’s main objective: to give an answer not only to the query but also to the general topics that fall within the user’s macro interest, even if they did not generate from his request. Thanks to this semantic and neural refinement of the algorithm, the user has the opportunity to find even more information — still related to the topic at hand —, even if he had not yet thought about searching for them.

In any case, the user still received useful and relevant answers, although he was not looking out for them. All this is certainly very interesting from the user’s point of view but, at the same time, it is also quite interesting for content creators. Even if a piece of written text is not the most relevant answer to the query, when the site that contains it shows topics relevant to the search, then it is evaluated as a subtopic and it shows up on the SERP. In other words, this system is not easy to control but provides significant possibilities to receive good positioning.

The Subtopic Ranking update definitely backs up with determination the famous Google EAT: Expertise, Authoritativeness and Trustworthiness. Being able to show the user high quality results and content in getting increasingly essential for search engines. In order to achieve this goal, each update of the algorithm aims at turning it into an innovative, semantic and multimodal search engine.

Mobile-first indexing is an update of the indexing element of the Google algorithm. First introduced in April 2018, it is completely active starting from March 2021, even though its functions had already been announced in 2016. Since March 2021, then, Google uses only the content for the mobile version of the site for indexing purposes and the resulting positioning among the search results —after the necessary calibrations, of course.

Google’s announcement, on the day of its official presentation, was:

“To recap, our crawling, indexing, and ranking systems have typically used the desktop version of a page’s content, which may cause issues for mobile searchers when that version is vastly different from the mobile version. Mobile-first indexing means that we’ll use the mobile version of the page for indexing and ranking, to better help our – primarily mobile – users find what they’re looking for.”

The use of smartphones and tablets is constantly increasing and the percentage of people who search on mobile devices has largely exceeded the percentage of the users who turn to the desktop functionality of the computer version. Precisely because of this major shift in users’ preference from desktop to mobile devices, Google has started a process of transformation of its own algorithm that now gives top priority to the information showed on the mobile version of the websites.

Therefore, every time Google indexes a website or a blog, it ends up prioritizing its mobile version over the desktop one.

Google’s John Mueller wrote in a tweet on March 12, 2021: “My guess is mobile-first indexing has been ongoing for so many years now that it’s more like a” part of life “:)”, and added, “Most sites are moved over, so I don’t expect giant fluctuations “.

However, the key concept that he highlighted is first addressed in a 2019 video, when Mueller himself stated that: “So, first off, again mobile usability is completely separate from mobile-first indexing.

A site can or cannot be usable from a mobile point of view, but it can still contain all of the content that we need for mobile-first indexing.

An extreme example, if you take something like a PDF file, then on mobile that would be terrible to navigate.

The links will be hard to click, the text will be hard to read. But all of the text is still there, and we could perfectly index that with mobile-first indexing.

Mobile usability is not the same as mobile-first indexing.”

That means mobile-optimized layouts are not required for mobile-first indexing.

Bridget Randolph said on Moz “mobile first indexing is exactly what it sounds like.” Mobile-first indexing means that Google adds to its index the information and content it gets from the mobile version of the websites.

In addition, the word first means that, whenever a webpage does not have a mobile-friendly version, the algorithm will automatically turn to the desktop version and take into account the contents available there. However, every webpage — either the mobile or desktop version — is indexed by a smartphone crawler, with the natural consequences.

That said, Cindy Krum, CEO & Founder of MobileMoxie, has examined mobile-first indexing and, in her opinion, there is much more than meets the eye in this algorithm.

Cindy Krum argues that merely talking about a variation of user-agent and crawler would be an understatement and that we should actually talk about Entity-first indexing.

In order to describe an entity, we can think about the traditional keyword; this keyword does not have to be a word, but it can also be an image, a sound or a concept.

From a search engine’s point of view, on the other hand, an entity is a domain and, in most cases, there is a larger superior entity, such as an international brand, that groups together several smaller entities.

Entity-indexing will allow Google to gather sites within a single level, providing the most relevant response to the user’s request. Which is to say, the search engine can handle all the websites of a brand as a single larger entity and provide the individual users with the most appropriate answer for them, according to their current, or preferred, country and language.

Cindy Krum has also highlighted Google’s ever-growing focus on entities, rather than keyword linguistic matching. As a matter of fact, Google relies on country-specific ccTLDs for language switching.

Moreover, in John Mueller’s Reddit AMA, the attention was not placed on topics closely related to mobile devices. On the other hand, the discussion was mostly focused on hreflang, the traditional HTML attribute that tells the search engine which page to show according to the user’s language and geographic area.

All these remarks have led to the belief that mobile-first indexing has a much broader scope than the already historic change from desktop to mobile version indexing.

However, this conceptual change has already taken place and the domains have already been re-indexed. Since the bot only follows links that can be accessed on a smartphone, the mobile user-agent contents are the only ones that will be processed. The desktop-only content will not end up as “lost in translation”, even though the mobile crawler will not find it. This content will simply stay within the index, without a mobile-first rating.

As for Cindy Krum’s belief that mobile-first indexing is actually an entity-first indexing, Danny Sullivan gave his answer through an analogy. Google’s Public Liaison for Search has stated that mobile-first indexing is like removing old paper books from a library and replacing them with the e-book version of same volumes. For all practical purposes, this means that there are not two separate indexes — one for smartphones and one for desktops — but only one comprehensive index. This statement, however, is at odd with John Mueller’s claim that this is nothing but a change to the user-agent. If this were the only change, Cindy Krum wonders, and if only the user agent had actually changed, then how could the same crawler that has provided us with paper books until yesterday, now give us e-books?

In October 2021, Google announced a new artificial intelligence architecture called Google Pathways, which is meant to improve the way machine learning performs tasks that would typically involve multiple models. The main goal of the new architecture is to handle many different tasks at once and learn new tasks quickly.

“Today’s AI models are typically trained to do only one thing. Pathways will enable us to train a single model to do thousands or millions of things” says Jeff Dean, senior fellow and SVP of Google Research and Google Health, on the Google official blog. There are several challenges with the existing approach to solving real-world issues with AI, and Google is developing the pathways architecture to solve them. By building a model that’s capable of tackling multiple, diverse tasks, Google might have found a way to create artificial intelligence that doesn’t get confused when confronted with something it hasn’t seen before.

“We want a [single] model to have different capabilities that can be called upon as needed, and stitched together to perform new, more complex tasks – a bit closer to the way the mammalian brain generalizes across tasks.” This means that the technology isn’t just limited to specific tasks but can do many different things well. So, for example, a self-driving car could recognize objects in its path using one pathway, then predict where those objects would be after one second using another pathway, and finally plan how it should avoid those objects using yet another pathway without having to run three separate models for each task.

In the Pathways architecture, activation flows through a single model in a highly sparse manner, with only small pathways called into action as needed. In fact, the model dynamically learns which parts of the network are good at which tasks — it learns how to route tasks through the most relevant parts of the model.

The human brain is a complex network of neurons and synapses that allows us to think, feel, and process the information we take in on a daily basis. Yet, despite this complexity, our brains use only a small amount of its processing power to complete tasks, using the specialized parts and not the entire brain network. Google’s new Pathways AI will similarly accomplish tasks, making it more energy-efficient, learning more, and doing it all faster than older models.

There are several other benefits as well: since only a small part of the network is needed for each task, it will be easier for the system to learn how to handle new problems. It will also process much faster than older systems. This means Google could eventually use this technology in its search algorithm to make it much more efficient, amongst several other possible use cases.

The Pathways architecture is presented in more detail on the paper “Pathways: asynchronous Distributed Dataflow for ML“, published on March 2022.

In May 2022, at its annual developer conference, Google announced the release of LaMDA 2, the second version of the Language Model for Dialogue Applications, after the engineers had already described its new features on the Google AI blog on January 21.
LaMDA, the conversational AI system, is built on the open source architecture of the Transformer neural network.
The system has undergone a long and complex training, by using 1.56 trillion words taken from public consultation documents available on the Internet, in order to be able to have “natural, sensible and specific” conversations.
This new version of the linguistic model fully meets such requirements, so much so that Blake Lemoine, an engineer at Google who has worked in the field of artificial intelligence for a long time, went so far as to claim that it was a sentient system. The company has eventually fired Lemoine as the executives believed their employee had suffered some kind of mental conditioning. Although it is certainly not sentient, LaMDA has proven capable of engaging in complex dialogs.
During the presentation of Google LaMDA, CEO Sundar Pichai discussed two of its most innovative creative functions, or ‘experiences’: ‘Imagine It’ and ‘Talk About It’. The first feature will allow the user to submit a creative idea as the artificial intelligence takes it and generates imaginative and relevant descriptions while asking follow-up questions.
As an example, Google Lambda 2 answered the prompt “Imagine I’m at the deepest part of the ocean” with a specific location: “You’re in the Mariana Trench”. LaMDA also generated relevant questions on-the-fly about the location, such as what kind of creatures live there or what it smells like. The topics at hand were not hand-programmed: the AI has actually synthesized them from its training data.
Google LaMDA’s second feature is its ability to stay on topic. When the user asks questions about a specific subject matter, the AI is able to stay on-topic and to keep talking about the matter at hand, even if the user inputs unrelated follow-up questions.
Senior Director Josh Woodward introduced and demonstrated live the third functionality of the system, ‘List It’. Starting from a complex topic, LaMDA is able to break it down into simpler subtasks; in other words, it takes into account related concepts and analyzes them, eventually generating tips and offering easy solutions to complex problems.
Google’s CEO has also reminded everyone that this technology still needs to be refined and it still has a long way to go before people can use it for their daily tasks.
Therefore, these functions needs to be improved and that is why having feedback is essential to make significant progress. With this in mind, Pichai also introduced an app, only available internally right now, called AI Test Kitchen, which allows the users to give their feedback and share their opinion. The LaMDA 2 presentation ended with Sundar Pichai’s statement about Google’s objective: making sure their AI achieves socially useful development while being safe and responsible.
As the developers have stated on the Google AI blog, language models are becoming more and more effective and, amongst them, the open-domain dialog, a system able to talk about any topic, is the biggest challenge ahead. In the years to come, even more so than now, Google will become a multimodal search engine.